United States
Energy Information Administration
The
two major types of pollution in South Africa are air and marine pollution. The
industrial sector is the prime contributor to air pollution. More than 90% of
South Africa's electricity is generated from the combustion of coal that contains
approximately 1.2% sulphur and up to 45% ash. Coal combustion can lead to particulate
matter in the air, as well as contribute to acid rain. While major cities in
South Africa do not possess pollution levels comparable to many major cities
in China, India or Mexico, pollutant levels are not insignificant. Nitrogen
dioxide levels in Cape Town, South Africa, for instance, were significantly
higher than those measured in Calcutta, and surpassed the World Health Organization's
annual mean guideline for air quality standard of 50 micrograms per cubic meter.
In addition to industrial pollution, low-level atmospheric pollution often results
from coal combustion in stoves, as well as coal-heated boilers that are found
in hospitals and factories. Vehicular emissions, while not nearly as significant
as in cities such as New York, Tokyo or Los Angeles, have a negative impact
on the environment. Regulations apply to diesel-powered vehicles and are geared
towards ensuring proper maintenance. Enforcement, however, is weak and sporadic.
South Africa also must concern itself with marine pollution. South Africa is
especially vulnerable to oil spills due to the high volume of oil transported
around the country's coasts by ship from the Middle East to Europe and the Americas.
The South African Department of Transport and the Department of Environmental
Affairs and Tourism cooperate to ensure both prevention of oil spills and clean-up
in the event of accidents. Measures supported by the Department of Transport
include the maintenance of at least a 12 mile distance from the South African
coast, prosecution of ship owners if any oil is discharged from their ships,
control of aircraft patrols over shipping lanes, and contingency plans for any
oil spills that occur.
Finally, South Africa experiences negative environmental impacts from mining
activities. Pollution from mining activities is probably the most direct cause
of groundwater pollution in South Africa. Furthermore, small waste coal dumps
cause both pollution and safety problems, as waste coal may spontaneously ignite.
Energy Use and Carbon Emissions
Of the 4.3
quadrillion Btu (quads) of primary energy consumed in South Africa in 1997,
74% was coal, 22% oil and 1.6% natural gas. Electricity generation is responsible
for a significant portion of coal usage, with more than 90% of South Africa's
electricity generated from coal. While South Africa accounts for 38% of the
total primary energy consumed in all of Africa, in a world context, South Africa
is only responsible for 1.1% of total primary energy consumption. Due to the
high content of coal in the energy mix, however, South Africa's carbon emissions
are proportionately greater in comparison with many other countries. In 1997,
South Africa emitted 98.9 million metric tons of carbon. This amounted to 42%
of Africa's energy-related carbon emissions and 2% of world energy-related carbon
emissions.
Over the past 25 years, primary energy consumption in South Africa's residential
and commercial sectors has risen only very gradually. The slow increase of primary
energy consumption in the residential sector can be attributed partially to
South Africa's reliance on fuel wood, a non-commercial energy source. Fuel wood
is still the largest source of household energy in remote rural populations.
It is estimated that fuel wood meets the daily energy needs of more than one
third of South Africa's population.
South Africa's transportation and industrial sector energy consumption and carbon
emissions have exhibited a significant rise over the past 25 years. In 1996,
the industrial sector consumed 2.16 quads of energy (50% of total primary energy
consumption) and emitted 55.6 million metric tons of carbon (56% of total carbon
emissions from fossil fuels). Meanwhile, in 1996, the transportation sector
consumed 1.25 quads of energy (29% of total primary energy consumption) and
emitted 27.5 million metric tons of carbon (nearly 28% of total carbon emissions).
Energy and Carbon Intensity
Since
1970, South Africa consistently has consumed the most energy and carbon per
dollar of GDP among major energy consumers in Africa. In 1997, South African
energy intensity measured 33.3 thousand Btu per $1997, higher than other major
African energy producing countries like Algeria, Egypt and Libya, and approaching
China's energy intensity of 41.4 thousand Btu per $1997. South Africa's carbon
intensity trends have mirrored energy intensity trends over the past 27 years.
In 1997, South Africa's carbon intensity was approximately 0.8 metric tons per
thousand $1997. This is far higher than in most other African countries. Again,
this is largely due to the heavy use of coal in the South African economy.
While most countries have energy conservation regulations, energy efficiency
standards in South Africa are lacking. Estimates suggest that energy costs represent
about 14% of South Africa's GDP, and that improvements in energy efficiency
of 10-20% could result in a GDP increase of between 1-3%. While there has been
recognition over the past few years of the benefits that would accrue from the
introduction of energy efficiency standards, most have not been implemented.
Barriers to improvements in energy efficiency include a low-cost energy supply
in coal, a lack of public awareness concerning operating costs of appliances,
inadequate long-term policies, and absence of codes and standards.
In February 1999, the U.S.-South African Binational Commission Sustainable Energy
Committee met and agreed to focus its efforts on improving energy efficiency,
while also concentrating its attention on renewable energy, clean power generators,
and natural gas technologies. New initiatives announced by this committee include:
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Per Capita Energy Use and Carbon Emissions
South Africa is one of the most industrialized countries in Africa. In comparison
to "developed" countries, however, South Africa has lower levels of automobile
and home appliance ownership per capita, and consumes a higher proportion of "non-commercial" energy. As a result, South Africa's per capita levels of energy consumption and
energy-related carbon emissions, while higher than in most of Africa, are lower
than in the United States and many other developed countries.
South
Africa's per capita energy consumption and per capita energy-related carbon
emissions have remained fairly constant over the past two and a half decades. In
1997, per capita energy consumption in South Africa was 99.2 million Btu, while
per capita energy-related carbon emissions registered 2.3 million metric tons of
carbon.
Renewable
Energy
Historically in South Africa, incentives for
investments in both energy efficient technologies and renewable energy have been
minimal. Partially due to the low price of coal in South Africa, there has been
little incentive for government funding or private support for renewable energy
sources.
One incentive for action might be the significant percentage of
the population that does not have access to grid electricity. Approximately 20%
of rural populations are expected to remain without access to grid electricity
over the next 20 years. Due to the dispersed nature of villages, modular,
renewable energy technologies are an economically efficient and environmentally
benign means of providing electricity to a larger percentage of the population.
South Africa has significant solar resources, and the potential for this
resource to reduce coal consumption and provide electricity to rural villages is
beginning to be exploited.
Solar power will be introduced into 50,000
homes as a result of a joint agreement between Eskom, the national power
supplier of South Africa, and Shell International Renewables. A solar panel,
charge-controlled battery and a metering unit can be installed in homes, without
owners having to pay the large upfront costs often associated with such systems.
Customers purchase a magnetic card that activates the solar home for a period of
thirty days. After thirty days, customers must purchase another card to activate
the system. The monthly cost to consumers will be about $8, approximately the
same amount of money that they are currently paying for more energy inefficient
and unsustainable fossil fuels.
In 1997, 5.2% of electricity capacity
was derived from nuclear power. Efforts are underway to explore options for
converting South Africa's SAFARI nuclear research reactor from one utilizing
weapons grade uranium, to one that can operate with low enriched
uranium.
South Africa in a Regional
Perspective
Issues such as acid rain and climate change are
regional or global by nature. From a South African perspective, this means
primarily cooperation with fellow members of the Southern Africa Development
Community (SADC) on environmental issues.
South Africa and other members
of the SADC signed a memorandum of understanding in August 1995 to establish a
Southern African Power Pool (SAPP). Limited electricity trade is taking place
among member utilities. South Africa is currently negotiating natural gas trade
agreements with Mozambique and Namibia. Such agreements may increase the demand
for natural gas and eventually, perhaps, other "cleaner" fuels, while
concomitantly reducing the pollutants that would have been emitted as a result
of coal combustion.
South Africa participates in the Renewable Energy
for African Development program (READ), which was set up in 1993 to promote
cooperation between African countries and U.S. industry, government, and
academia on renewable energy issues. The non-profit program promotes sustainable
rural development through appropriate use of renewable energy
technologies.
South Africa and Lesotho also are joining efforts during
construction of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project, all five phases of which
are to be completed by 2020. The purpose of the largest water supply scheme ever
undertaken in Africa is to both provide needed water supplies to South Africa,
and to provide hydropower to Lesotho. Currently, South Africa consumes 80% of
the region's water resources yet possesses only 10% of the region's water. Upon
completion, water will be supplied to the industrial heartland of South Africa
and about 180MW of electricity will be supplied to Lesotho. Environmental
groups, however, fear that the large dams constructed in the Lesotho Highlands
Water Project will not only force people from their homes, but submerge fertile
farmland and forests and destroy valuable fisheries and ecosystems.
South Africa in the 21st
Century
South Africa is initiating efforts to improve
environmental conditions in the country. South Africa is currently working in
cooperation with the Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy in implementing a South African Energy and Demand Efficiency
Standard (SAEDES) for non-residential buildings. The final draft standards were
to be completed by the end of 1999, followed by field tests of the standards in
five buildings.
Not only are environmental standards being established
in South Africa, but environmental groups are also beginning to receive
attention. Sasol, a South African coal and synthetic fuels company, had plans to
develop the Sigma Northwest strip mine (located on the banks of the Vaal River).
In 1999, the Save the Vaal Environment Group (SAVE) won its petition to the
South African government, forcing Sasol Mining Ltd. to exclude the Sigma
North-West strip mine from its operations. The process has proven beneficial to
all parties, creating a forum to discuss conflicting viewpoints concerning
development and its effect on the environment. Sasol Mining and SAVE agree that
it is essential to sustainably utilize the Vaal Barrage Reservoir, and that its
environment is dependent on the long-term cooperation of both parties.
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