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Extracts from a paper presented by Dr Sugata
Mitra, Centre for Research in Cognitive Systems, NIIT Ltd. at the
Innovation in Education Conference, held in Cape Town in April 2004
Abstract
Development in the 21st century will
be determined, to a large extent, by the thought, action and imagination
of young people.
We report on the current status and findings
of our experiments with unsupervised Internet access by village
and urban slum children of India. Several new experimental projects
are described and the initial findings reported. The original hypotheses
and their subsequent verification are described. A new hypothesis
is proposed. Finally, a preliminary statement for a new pedagogy
is made. Plans for further work are described.
The paper goes on to describe the results
of several experiments conducted in the area of self-instruction.
Based on observations from these experiments as well as from constructivist
theory, an approach named Minimally Invasive Education is proposed
and the process described.
…
In this paper, we discuss the results of a series of experiments
conducted since 1999. The experiments suggest that there may be
an alternative set of conditions that can meet the objectives of
formal education, or, at least, supplement the current formal system.
The set of conditions necessary for such an alternative system are:
1. The existence of the Internet
2. The existence of a technology for free and public access to the
Internet
In what follows, we will examine some qualitative aspects of children’s
education, followed by a description of the results of a series
of experiments conducted in India.
How do children learn?
There are many frameworks and theories to explain
how learning occurs or how it should be conducted. Each has passionate
supporters and detractors who debate on the effectiveness and inherent
appropriateness of one over the other.
Broadly, however, almost all teaching-learning interactions can
be classified as one of the following:
- Those where the teacher or external resource
determines the learning content and methodology.
- Those where the teacher or external resource
determines the learning, in consultation with the learners.
- Those where the learners determine their own
learning outcomes and how they will go about it.
The last of these encompasses theories such as
Holt’s ideas on “learning all the time” (Holt
1982), Piagetian, situated cognition and constructivism (Piaget
1953), Vygotsky’s concept of zone of proximal development
(Vygotsky 1967, 1986; Nicolopoulou 1993).
Constructivism theory talks about cognitive growth
and learning. This theory has gained many adherents in recent years
(c.f. Forman & Pufall, 1988; Newman, Griffin, and Cole, 1989;
Piaget, 1973; Resnick, 1989; Papert, 1980). One of the foundational
premises is that children actively construct their knowledge in
a context, rather than simply absorbing ideas spoken at them by
teachers. It posits that children actually invent their ideas. They
assimilate new information to simple, pre-existing notions, and
modify their understanding in light of new data. In the process,
their ideas gain in complexity and power, and with appropriate support
they develop critical insight into how they think and what they
know about the world.
The two specific features of this philosophy borrowed
from research in child development, is that play and experimentation
are valuable forms of learning (c.f. Daiute, 1989; Garvey, 1977;
Rubin, Fein & Vandenberg 1983; Sutton-Smith, 1971; Vandenberg
1980;). Play involves the consideration of novel combinations of
ideas. It is a form of mental exploration in which children create,
reflect on, and work out their understanding.
Both play and exploration are self-structured
and self-motivated processes of learning.
Another growing body of research on collaborative
or cooperative learning has demonstrated the benefits of children
working with other children in collective learning efforts (Rysavy
& Sales, 1991). When children collaborate, they share the process
of constructing their ideas, instead of simply labouring individually
(Cole, 1990; Tudge, 1990; Forman & Cazden, 1986).
The educational application of the above theories
lie in creating curricula that matches and also challenges children's
understanding, fostering further growth and development of the mind.
It is in the context of collaborative learning
and constructivism that networked computing environments become
important.
Children are instinctively “good”
at using computers. While I could not find a study to support this,
I base this impression on twenty years of experience with children
using computers. Parents of children who have computers would say,
almost without exception, that the child is able to do things that
they, the parents, consider complex and impressive. Two explanations
could exist for such reports on children using computers:
- Children are able to self-instruct themselves
to use computers for many tasks. This is impressive to adults
and other children.
- Adults are not able to do the above and, therefore,
are highly impressed by children’s abilities in this area.
Collaborative computing is a relatively new area,
and one that is changing and developing rapidly. The effects of
collaborative education in such environments are not very well understood.
In what follows, I will report on a number of observational experiments
in this area conducted over a ten-year period. In the process, a
“minimally invasive” model appears to have interesting
possibilities.
The idea of unsupervised learning was first pointed
out in a paper on the use of diagnostics (debugging) as a learning
tool (Mitra, S. and Pawar, R.S., 1982). Of the work done later in
this period, two experiments are worth mentioning in the context
of this paper. Both experiments were based on a paper (Mitra, S.,1988)
where it was suggested that unsupervised use of computers can lead
to accelerated learning of skills in children. It is now widely
felt that children are more adept at modern computing skills than
most adults, although they seldom want or get formal education in
this area.
Keeping these observations in mind, we describe
a set of experiments with the self-organisation of the learning
process.
Early Experiments
The LEDA experiments
LEDA stands for “Learning through Exploration, Discovery
and Adventure”. Sets of experiments were conducted in the
period from 1991-1996. Each experiment was a one week summer school
where groups of heterogeneous urban children in the age group 4-16
years were exposed to highly networked computing environments, provided
with media and entertainment resources and allowed to formulate
their own projects.
Each summer school received high quality feedback
from students and parents. Results showed that children were capable
of doing the following:
- Understanding and using networked environments
to exchange data, chat, use e-mail and the Internet
- Understanding and using graphics, 3D and animation
packages. This is an activity they seem to enjoy the most.
- Discuss complex issues, such as, “Are
computers alive?” with each other and come to conclusions.
- Organise themselves for fair and efficient
use of computer time.
- Entertain each other, particularly the very
young children, when bored.
- Helping each other learn whenever required.
The Udang experiment
In 1994, a computer was installed in a village called Udang in the
state of West Bengal in India. The installation was in a school
and it was observed (by Marmar Mukhopadhyay, the originator of the
experiment) that both students and teachers were comfortable with
its operation within a few weeks, with minimal instructions. In
other words, they were able to teach themselves the fundamentals
of computing (Zielenziger, 1995) and found enough self-motivation
to do so. The students went on to create a database containing information
about their village and the information was subsequently used by
the government of India for decision making purposes. The Udang
school continues to serve as a computer skills training centre for
the local villages of the area.
Formulation of hypothesis 1
The results of these experiments led to the formulation
of a hypothesis, stated as follows:
Hypothesis 1: If given appropriate
access and connectivity, groups of children can learn to operate
and use computers and the Internet with no or minimal intervention
from adults.
The “Hole-in-the-wall” experiments
It has been observed that children are able to learn to use computers
and the Internet on their own, irrespective of their social, cultural
or economic backgrounds (Mitra and Rana, 2001). These experiments,
first conducted in 1999 were labelled by the press as “hole-in-the-wall”
experiments (see, for example, Padmakar and Porter, 2001), because
the experimental arrangement consisted of computers built into openings
in brick walls in public spaces. In what follows, we describe the
work done subsequent to these initial experiments, the results obtained
and some, possible, conclusions.
The Kalkaji experiment
The first experiment reported in our earlier publication was conducted
in Kalkaji, a suburb of New Delhi, India. The experiment consisted
of installing a computer connected to the Internet and embedded
into a brick wall near a slum. We observed that most of the slum
children were able to use the computer to browse, play games, create
documents and paint pictures within a few days. The results have,
since then, been reported in detail, elsewhere (see, for example,
Mitra 2000 and Wullenweber 2001).
The Shivpuri experiment
The Kalkaji experiment raised some doubts about whether the children
had got inputs from computer literate adults in the vicinity. We
repeated the experiment in the town of Shivpuri (state of Madhya
Pradesh in central India) in May, 1999. Shivpuri is a rural town
with very little computer usage in any segment of society. The kiosk
was made operational for three months (May to July, 1999) with a
dial-up Internet connection. Our observations were nearly identical
to those obtained in the first experiment. Here we observed boys
acquiring the skills required to do the tasks described above through
an exploration, discovery and the peer tutoring process. The area
was unsafe, no girls were observed to use the computer, and the
experiment was closed.
The Madantusi experiment
So far, the experiments had been conducted in cities and towns.
In June, 2000, we were able to repeat the process in the village
of Madantusi (state of Uttar Pradesh, in northern India). With the
help of an experienced school administrator and researcher, Urvashi
Sahni, we were able to build a computer into the wall of the local
school and left unattended. An Internet connection was not possible.
After three months, we returned to observe that the children were
using most features of the computer, including its CD drive and
the keyboard. Adults of the area reported certain behavioural changes.
These included:
- Self-organisation and self imposed discipline
in the sharing of computer time.
- Nature and volume of their conversations with
each other
- Use of English words with each other
- Children who learned something transferring
the knowledge to others
The children were able to clearly articulate the
pedagogy by which they taught each other. They were also observed
using over 200 English words while talking about their experience.
The Sindhudurg project
The largest of our rural experiments is located in the Sindhudurg
district of the state of Maharashtra, on the western coast of India.
Funded by the ICICI bank, the largest private bank in India, we
have constructed five kiosks containing two computers each in five
villages of the area, spread over an approximate area of 2000 square
kilometres. The project has been operational since 2nd April, 2002.
Internet access is available at two of the locations through dial-up
connections.
Photo 1: A kiosk in village Kalse, Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra,
India.
In all locations, children were observed acquiring
the basic skills required to use the computer (for playing games,
painting, music, documents etc.) within a few hours. The entire
process has been documented through video clips, focus group interviews,
tests and machine log files. Approximately, 250 children use the
computers regularly. There are an approximately equal numbers of
boys and girls. A local teacher reported that about 10% of his work
in teaching computing concepts had been already acquired by the
children in one month.
The children of Sindhudurg discovered e-mail and
Internet chatting in the fifth month of the project. In the two
connected villages, they are familiar with the Internet and make
frequent use of mail, chat rooms and browsing. A girl in one of
the villages had recently given out her phone number to a stranger
and had received phone calls from another Indian city. Instead of
instructing them not to divulge personal details, we organised a
seminar by the students on how best to use the Internet for communication.
A few of the children quickly discovered the dangers of the Internet
using search engines and reported this to the rest of the group.
They have, since then, made strict norms for themselves about the
protocols to be used while chatting.
In both villages, students have been found using
the Internet for help with their homework.
In one of the villages, children who do not study
computers formally in school or otherwise but are seen at the kiosk
were given the 8th grade examination of the Maharashtra State Board
of Education. This examination is meant for children who have been
taught to use computers, in the traditional sense, for one year.
It was found that children whose only exposure
was to the kiosks for six months were able to pass (ie, get more
than 35% marks) in the examination. Their performance in the practical
section of the examination (where skill usage is tested) was excellent
while their performance in the theory section of the examination
was dismal, but adequate as measured against the board’s norms.
Formulation of hypothesis 3
Much of the observations from the above experiments
seem to suggest that in addition to learning to use a computer,
the children are learning other things. This learning is the consequence
of peer group discussions and active experimentation with the Internet
and with any other software resident on their computers. We have,
subsequently, proposed a third hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3: If given appropriate
access, connectivity and content, groups of children can learn to
operate and use computers and the Internet to achieve a specified
set of the objectives of primary education, with none or minimal
intervention from adults.
The Gwalior experiment
At this time, several experiments are being conducted around the
concept proposed in hypothesis 3. The first of these were carried
out in the Scindia School in Gwalior, India. This is a highly respected
institution and many Indian political leaders have emerged from
it. The school has recently set up an extensive computing facility
through a local area network spread throughout the campus. High
bandwidth Internet connections are available at all computers. The
teachers, who were initially sceptical of the effectiveness of the
Internet for education, were affected significantly by the results
of the experiment described below.
Procedure
- The students were given Physics experiments
to do on their own with a computer instructing them on assembling
and manipulating the experimental apparatus. The computer was
“aware” of the state of the apparatus through sensors
connected to its serial port.
- The students were given free access to the
Internet and asked to interpret the results of the experiments
they had conducted.
- Students of commerce were given 12th grade
questions on Physics (such as on superconductivity) and asked
to solve them using the Internet.
- The students were given free access to the
Internet with no instructions about usage for two hours in a public
and highly visible location
- Teachers were instructed to announce to each
class what they would be teaching in the next class and to ensure
that their students had free access to the Internet in the interim.
Results
- 9th grade students successfully completed the
experiments allotted to them.
- They were able to accurately describe the
natural processes they had observed and the laws that controlled
such processes. Their interest and motivation levels were high.
- 10th grade commerce students were able to
answer 12th grade science questions correctly, after some initial
hesitation. Some became intensely interested and involved with
the subject.
- No instances of pornographic or other undesirable
activity were detected. Browsing, chatting and e-mail were the
main activities observed.
- Teachers reported many instances of students
coming with information that made factual teaching redundant.
They reported more conceptual discussions and an overall equality
of relationship between them and the students.
The Hyderabad experiment
The last of the experiments related to hypothesis 3 is currently
(February, 2003) being carried out in the city of Hyderabad, India.
The environment and the problem
Hyderabad is a large city in southern India and, like many such
cities in India, contains sprawling slum areas. These areas in Hyderabad
contain a large number of small private schools, sometimes as many
as 10 in a square kilometre. These schools are filled to capacity
with children whose parents pay substantial amounts for education
(in comparison to their incomes) in spite of the fact that there
are several free schools in the vicinity operated by the government.
The single most important reason why the slum parents send their
children to these private schools is the English language.
There are 17 languages recognised by the United
Nations and over 700 dialects related to these languages, spoken
in India. Hindi is the national language, while English is a common
“bridging” language that is used everywhere.
As a consequence of its colonial past, people
who speak in English are generally considered more suitable for
most jobs than people who don’t. While this may not be a happy
situation, it is one of the main reasons why India scores over other
Southeast Asian nations in the software industry. India is the second
largest exporter of software in the world after the United States
and its success is often attributed to the ability of its industry
and its people to deal with the English language.
The ability to speak in English can determine
the living standards and occupations of most Indians. It is for
this reason that the private schools in Hyderabad prosper.
While these schools teach English with a reasonable
effectiveness, they suffer from a severe “mother tongue influence”
(MTI). The products of such schools, and, indeed, any school in
India can be fluent in English, but would often speak the language
with an accent that is incomprehensible anywhere in the world. The
reason for this is because teachers in such schools have a strong
MTI themselves, that their students copy, and the problem perpetuates
itself.
It is in this context that the experiment below
was conducted.
Experimental procedure and initial
results
We placed a PC in a selected school in the Edi Bazaar area of Hyderabad.
The PC was equipped with an educational software system called Ellis
Kids. In addition, a speech-to-text engine was installed on it.
Several films, such as “My Fair Lady” and “The
Sound of Music” were installed also.
Four groups of four children each were selected
at random. They consisted of 8 boys and 8 girls ranging in age from
8 to 16 years. The children had no exposure to computers and their
English pronunciation had severe MTI.
The speech-to-text engine was trained in four
“standard” voices, two Indian male and female voices,
two UK male and female voices. The children were not permitted to
train the engine any further. They were told to find a means by
which the engine would recognise what they were saying, when they
read a passage out to it.
The children’s readings and the percentage
recognition by the speech-to-text engine were recorded every month
for four months of unattended operation.
Photo3: Children working on pronunciation in Peace High School,
Edi Bazaar, Hyderabad, India
The children taught themselves to operate the
computer rapidly, as they have in all other experiments reported
in this paper. They then proceeded to speak to the speech-to-text
engine and to modify their accents until they could be understood.
Significant changes were measured in their accents
over this period and the results will be reported in detail elsewhere.
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