One of the most important ways in which people learn is through observing the behaviour of others and what happens as a result of that behaviour. We often see this in young children who imitate or try out a piece of behaviour they have seen someone else perform, or have seen on TV. In fact the television is an important contributor of behaviour modeled by film stars, and often copied then by the observers. Children copy behaviour that they see others getting praise for, and hope they will also get praise for it too.

There are four cognitive processes to think about when we break observational learning down into its parts. These cognitive processes are:

• Attention
• Retention
• Production
• Motivation

Before we look at each of these in detail, let us look at an example of observational learning:

One of the writers of this module, Jacqui, was visiting a family who were keen golfers. The family she was visiting suggested that she should join them for a game of golf that day. Jacqui was keen, but had never played the game before, and was concerned that she might not be able to play. She is however, a keen hockey player, and has played that game for more than twenty years. The family members said they had just the thing that could assist her. They put on the TV for her to watch a 30-minute golfing instruction video. After watching the video, in which the instructor demonstrated some simple techniques for hitting the ball, and gave a series of points to say to oneself as one was about to hit the ball, Jacqui went out onto the golf course. She was very surprised, as she hit her first ball, using the techniques she had watched, that she was able to hit it straight down the course. Of course as the game progressed, some of her shots went astray, and she still had a lot to learn, but each time she stepped up to the ball, she would say to herself the words that the video golfing instructor had given, and would focus on what he had showed. She enjoyed her first game of golf, and has now gone for a few lessons to help her further.

This is an example of learning through observation. We can now look at this example, with the four aspects, listed above, in mind. The first, attention, is illustrated when Jacqui watches the video carefully, focusing her attention on the demonstrations and the words of the instructor. The second, retention, occurs as Jacqui memorises the words of the instructor, and rehearses in her mind the actions shown in the visual demonstration she watched. The third, production, happens when Jacqui tries out the techniques she has memorized on the golf course a couple of hours later – she imitates what she saw on the video. The final aspect, motivation refers to Jacqui’s attitude to trying to play – she was hesitant at first, but was encouraged by the family, and then when she experienced some success she became keen to play on further.

Now let us look at each of the phases of observational learning:

Attention: Just as in information processing, attention is very important. In fact Gage and Berliner (1991, p.258) say, “Without attention, there can be no learning”. The nature of this attention is the watching of the other person’s actions and listening to the model’s words. Attention is not only about first focusing on the model, it is also about maintaining attention for long enough. The characteristics of a model will be important in first attracting attention, and the model needs to be doing something that is interesting in order to maintain observers’ attention. Learners sometimes need to be reminded to pay attention, or to re-focus their attention on what you, as the educator, believe is important. It is a good idea, if you see learners’ attention wandering, to regain their attention by words or clapping your hands, and if many learners are becoming inattentive, perhaps they need a change in activity or a quick break.

Retention: This refers to memorizing or remembering the sequence of actions observed. Of course, the learner needs to have developed the schema’s to enable the learning to take place, so the actions must not be too far in advance of what the learner can already do. Memorizing can be assisted by the use of rehearsal and memory aids. Often when we are about to perform actions, we ‘go over’ the sequence in our minds, to rehearse the steps.

Production: In this phase, the memorized visual or verbal sequences are performed. Thus, the way in which the learner has coded the information in memory will influence the way in which the actions and words are produced. Then, once the learner has produced what was observed and memorized, the response of others as well as the learner’s own opinion of the performance will be important. The response of others and the learner’s self-assessment is known as feedback. If the feedback is positive – the learner believes he/she has done well, or another person praises the learner, then it is likely that the learner will repeat the sequence. If the feedback is negative – the learner believes he/she has not done well, or someone else is critical, the learner is less likely to try the sequence again.

Motivation: This stage is linked to the responses of others to the learner’s actions, and to the learner’s self-assessment. If the learner is rewarded or praised for a performance, she is likely to be more motivated to enact the sequence again. If it is punishing to perform the sequence, in other words the learner has had criticism or possibly has been punished, he will not be motivated to enact the sequence. It is important to note that the source of the praise or punishment could be others or it could come from the learner’s self-assessment. Finally, social cognitive theorists note that praise or punishment can also be vicarious, meaning that the learner will observe the consequences of a sequence of behaviour for others. For example when an older brother is praised at the family meal for a good report from school, or an older sister is sent to the bedroom for using foul language, younger siblings will learn from watching the effects on the older sibling.

An additional note is that we must not assume that the child is influenced in a one-way interaction. The child’s attraction to, or rejection of, for example a role model, may cause certain reactions from the role model, or cause the model to emphasize, adjust or change some personal characteristics.

1.3.2 Notes On Using Observational learning in the Classroom

Before we draw together some of the important points of applying social cognitive theory in the classroom, complete this next activity.

Characteristics of effective models:

Gouws (1998) identifies three important characteristics of models, which would lead to learners being more likely to try and imitate them. These are:

• Competence – such a model would be able to do something well, rather than being a person who often makes mistakes (e.g. a good tennis player or golfer).
• Prestige and power – people who have achieved fame through media or sporting achievements (e.g. a TV presenter or soccer star), or people who have power (e.g. a popular politician) are more likely to be imitated. Thus such people to come and talk to the learners is important (e.g. a former school pupil who has achieved well, a well-known young person with an anti-drug or safe sex message).
• ‘Gender-appropriate’ behaviour – learners often limit their own possibilities by grouping activities as ‘men’s’ or ‘women’s’ work. It is valuable to expose learners to those who have broken free of gender stereotypes such as a female engineer or a male nurse.

Such models would gain learners attention and interest. (We’re sure you’ve noticed how learners often imitate what they’ve seen on TV). It is also important, though, that what is being modelled is not too far beyond learners’ abilities. The gap between the learners’ current abilities and potential to do something – in the Zone of Proximal Deveopment (that we will read about in Activity 6) – must not be too great, (for example an exhibition of complex diving off a high board when the learners are unable to swim).

Assisting learners to use skills to assist their memorizing:
One of the first requirements for memorizing is that the learners are paying attention to the behaviour which they need to model. So, educators must make sure they have learners’ attention when there is an important sequence to memorise. In the previous section, we spoke of some of the ways to enable people to memorise better. These include rehearsal of words/ideas, developing mnemonics (word codes which assist remembering), ‘chunking’ information into manageable pieces, linking verbal and visual images. These can be used to assist learners in the retention phase.

Making sure that learners have appropriate feedback as soon as possible:
Under the ‘production’ sub-heading we wrote about the importance of feedback. Feedback (either positive or negative, depending on the desirability of the behaviour), needs to be given as soon as possible after the learner has produced modelled behaviour. The learner must be able to make a link between the feedback and his or her behaviour. It is also helpful for the feedback to be ‘corrective’ – not just a value judgement like ‘good’ or ‘bad’, but linking it to the reasons for the feedback. If a learner’s performance has some elements which are correct, it is important to praise those aspects before giving criticism. Remember, too that self-regulation (being able to monitor your own behaviour) is based on the feedback statements which the learner hears from others. If a learner hears only criticism, she will criticize herself much more often then praising herself, and this will decrease her confidence. The opposite is also true – a learner who hears praise for what he does right will be more likely to learn to praise himself when he is successful.

Remembering that as an educator, what you do is as powerful as your words:
We often forget, as educators, that learners are watching us a great deal of the time at school. So, if we give strong messages about learners not smoking, do we then sit and smoke on the corridors? Or, if we believe that we should be teaching learners not to be abusive, do we then call learners names, or support the use of corporal punishment in the community? Or do we insist that learners do their homework, but then take many weeks to mark a set of books? We need to remember that we are powerful role models to the learners, and we have an important role to play, perhaps showing them better ways to communicate than they learn at home, and modelling good work habits like punctuality, persistence, organizing of material and meeting deadlines.

We will look at cooperative learning in Activity 7. Social cognitive theory gives us some input here: there are times when slightly older or more competent learners are good role models to others. This may be done through group work, when there is a range of ability in the class, the more competent learners may demonstrate and assist the other learners in their group. However, it must not always be the same learners chosen to be role models – remember to be careful that you are not accused of favouritism!

Finally, as educators, we can be good role models by being enthusiastic about our work and by relating to our learners with respect.

A summary of key learning points in this section

• Educators are important role models to learners as learners observe and imitate educators’ behaviour.
• Four important cognitive processes in observational learning are Attention, Retention, Production and Motivation.
• Educators need to understand how to positively influence the development of cognitive processes.
• Models who gain learners' attention and interest show important characteristics such as competence, prestige, power, gender-appropriate behaviour and enthusiasm.